Research Methods

Experiments:

• Laboratory experiments:

Researchers control as many variables as possible.

They can be conducted anywhere if they are controlled.

Strengths:

• High level of control.
• It can be repeated.
• The cause and effect of the phenomenon can be easily spotted.
• Scientific equipment can be used easily – no need of hiding from participants.

Weaknesses:

• The experimenter could be biased.
• Demand characteristics could occur – change results – unreliable research.
• Low ecological validity – the setting is not realistic.

---

• Field and Natural experiments:

Carried out in the real world.

Independent Variable is controlled by the experimenter.

In Natural Experiments, the Independent Variable usually occurs naturally and the effect on the Depend Variable is recorded.

Strengths:

• High ecological validity because it is usually conducted in natural environment.
• No demand characteristics – usually the participants do not know they are being studied – natural behaviour.

Weaknesses:

• Less control over extraneous variables – behavior could be caused by other factors other than the Independent Variable.
• It is difficult to replicate since it is hard to find the same people at another time and everyone is individual, therefore cannot generalise.
• Ethics – informed consent/deception/right to withdraw.
• It can be time consuming and expensive.
• Sample bias.

---

• Quasi experiments:

Shares same features of true experiments.

Extraneous variables are not controlled.

The Independent Varible is not manipulated by the researcher – it occurs naturally (e.g. gender)

Therefore, researcher does not put participants into groups/conditions, they already are in society.

Strengths:

• Useful in generating results for general trends in social sciences.
• Easily integrated with individual case studies.
• Enables to reduce the time and resources required for experimentation – no need for pre-screening and randomization.

 Weaknesses:

• Without proper randomization, statistical tests can be meaningless because they do not explain any pre-existing factors and influences outside of experiment.
• The researcher needs to control additional factors that may have affected the results.
• Some form of pre-testing or random selection may be necessary to explain statistical results.

---

Correlational studies:

Measuring the relationship between two or more variables to see if a trend exists:

-Positive – both increase at the same time.

-Negative – One increases, other decreases.

-Perfect positive – relation +1

-Perfect negative – relation -1

-No correlation – 0

Strengths:

• Allows predictions to be made.
• Confirms relationships between two variables.
• Manipulation is not required.

Weaknesses:

• We cannot say for sure which variable is the cause and which one is the effect.
• There may be extraneous variables.
• Correlational studies do not allow us to go beyond the data given.

---

 Observations:

When sample is observed.

– May be covert – done secretly – or overt – known by the participants.

-Participant observation – researcher gets actively involved with the study.

-Non-participant observation – researchers observes the activities.

Strengths:

• High external validity – there is no artificial setting.
• Practical method – we may look at animals not allowed to be captive.
• Few demand characteristics – if unaware of observation = more likely to display natural and realistic behavior.

Weaknesses:

• The observer may be biased – only looks for behavior that supports the phenomenon being studied.
• One observer is not reliable enough.
• It is difficult to replicate.
• Ethics – covert is done without consent.
• The presence of an observer may influence the sample.

---

Questionnaires:

Written method of data collection where there are a list of questions.

Questions can be:

• Closed and fixed
• Open

Strengths:

• Allows big sample to be tested – saves time.
• It is cheap.
• May generate both qualitative and quantitative data.
• Very easy to replicate if close-ended questions are used
• Subjectivity can be avoided with close-needed questions.
• Confidentiality can be ensured by participants taking part anonymously.

Weaknesses:

• The participants may not understand certain questions – especially if unknown terminology is used.
• If experimenter is present, therefore no anonymity – demand characteristics.
• Also, social desirability may come into play.
• There are low response rates.
• Subjectivity may come into play with open ended questions.

---

Interviews:

Face to face conversations.

-Structured/formal interviews – asking questions, writing down response = same for everyone.

-Unstructured/informal interviews – Less controlled, informal conversations. Topic is determined but subjects are not.

Strengths:

• Observing body language.
• Quantitative/ qualitative data can be created.
• Semi-structured/ unstructured interviews give more detailed information.
• Structured interviews are easy to repeat.
• If they are any misunderstandings, they can be explained.

Weaknesses:

• Demand characteristic are very likely to occur – mostly in sensitive questions.
• Very time-consuming and quite costly.
• Interviewer bias – pushes interviewee to say what study is looking for.
• Qualitative data may be interpreted subjectively.

---

Case studies:

Carry in-depth investigation into individuals or small groups.

Strengths:

• Very detailed and produce a lot of information.
• Various methods can be used – interviews, observations and questionnaires.
• Researcher may become close to the person – gain personal and confidential information.

Weaknesses:

• Can be time consuming and costly.
• They cannot be generalized to the bigger population because they focus on one person or small group which are not representative of everyone.
• Can create a strong researcher bias since they are very close to the participant.